WHITE PAPER

FIRE AND POLICE COMMISSION OF THE CITY OF MILWAUKEE MONITORING PROGRAM

THE MILWAUKEE TURNERS 

PREPARED BY:

EMILIO DE TORRE

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR OF THE MILWAUKEE TURNERS

BENJAMIN LINZY

ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF RESEARCH AND OPERATIONS, CENTER FOR URBAN RESEARCH, TEACHING, AND OUTREACH (CURTO), PROGRAM COORDINATOR, HUMANITIES WITHOUT WALLS (HWW), AND ABD IN HISTORY, MARQUETTE UNIVERSITY

NICKOLAS X DOHERTY

CONFRONTING MASS INCARCERATION COORDINATOR, MILWAUKEE TURNERS

EMILY K. STERK, PH.D.

RESEARCH AND ADVOCACY ASSOCIATE AND ACLS LEADING EDGE FELLOW, MILWAUKEE TURNERS

FEBRUARY 14, 2025

REVISED FEBRUARY 18, 2025

ABOUT THE MILWAUKEE TURNERS

The Milwaukee Turners were established in 1853. Since then we have provided cultural, fitness, and wellness programs and forums from our historic landmark Turner Hall. Our mission to support a sound mind in a sound body through our principles of liberty against oppression, tolerance against fanaticism, reason against superstition and justice against all exploitation informs our 171 years of action in the city as a force for progress. We seek to be the embodiment of a diverse community in practice that confronts injustice and fosters wellness, community restoration, and civic empowerment to advance the residents of Milwaukee. It is in this spirit that we began to study the current practices of Milwaukee’s Fire and Police Commission (FPC).

The Milwaukee Turners values community engagement and feedback. Should you have any questions or comments about this white paper or the FPC Monitoring Program in general, please contact Dr. Emily Sterk at esterk@milwaukeeturners.org.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Milwaukee Turners’ FPC Monitoring Program and this resulting white paper would not have been possible without the help and support of many individuals. We would first like to thank the Microsoft Justice Reform Initiative for funding this project and our project assistants from the Urban Institute, Paige Remington and Nina Russell. We would also like to thank Gautham Sripathi for his technological assistance and support with data visualizations. We gratefully acknowledge Nilesh Patel’s careful review of an early draft of this paper and his insightful feedback. Thanks should also go to Professor Mike Carriere from the Milwaukee School of Engineering (MSOE) for helping us identify talented student interns. Finally, this project would not have been possible without the expertise of Krueger Williams. We thank him for the invaluable contributions he has made to the development of our app and dashboard.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .……………………………………………………………………... 5

INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………………. 6

BACKGROUND ………………………………………………………………………………. 10

OBSERVATIONS ……………………………………………………………………………… 13

RECOMMENDATIONS  ……………………………………………………………………… 17

CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………………………………… 19

REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………………… 20

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Fire and Police Commission (FPC) of the City of Milwaukee is a civilian oversight board that oversees aspects of the Fire and Police Department and Department of Emergency Communications operations. Made up of nine civilian Commissioners, the FPC aims to represent the larger community’s voice, thereby fostering a more responsive and effective city government. While the passing of Wisconsin’s Act 12 in 2023 eliminated the FPC’s policymaking authority, the FPC still holds significant power and influence as the only civilian oversight institution for the Fire and Police Departments.

This white paper is the product of a six-month monitoring period of the FPC from June 2024 to December 2024. After years of civic participation, the Milwaukee Turners noted that the general public is not aware of the authority assigned to the FPC, nor of the FPC’s role in providing oversight and accountability to the Milwaukee Police Department (MPD). Few, if any, members of the community attend FPC meetings unless there is a tragic occurrence and no new sources or civic watchdogs regularly monitor and report on the FPC. For this reason, the Milwaukee Turners started its FPC Monitoring Program in order to track policies and practices and share a synopsis of the information and data with the public, especially organizations that work towards police accountability, oversight, and racial equity. By showing what issues are in front of the FPC and how the Commissioners respond to them, the public and community groups can act in a more informed way.

Our white paper outlines a series of four observations about the efficacy of the FPC and its oversight of the MPD: 1) During regular sessions observed during our monitoring period, the FPC devoted 81% of their time to personnel matters; 2) During regular sessions, there is an overall lack of active engagement and participation from Commissioners; 3) The FPC appears to serve as a rubber stamp; and 4) The FPC has failed to secure public trust. Based on these observations and our data analysis, the Milwaukee Turners present four recommendations for the FPC. Although our first recommendation requires considerable efforts from the FPC and the City of Milwaukee to lobby for the amendment of Wisconsin Act 12, the majority of our recommendations do not require notable changes to state law or FPC rules and instead call for small – yet visible – changes in the FPC culture and its practices. We recommend that the FPC bring policy change recommendations to the Common Council while Wisconsin Act 12 exists in its current form, to prepare and actively participate in all meetings, and to engage the public.

The collected data was recorded on a free phone-based app developed in collaboration with undergraduate students from the Milwaukee School of Engineering (MSOE) Honors Program, and later uploaded to an online dashboard using PowerBI. This project was completed with support from the Microsoft Justice Reform Initiative.

INTRODUCTION

1. Scope of Project

This white paper derives from research and analysis conducted by members of the Milwaukee Turners’ “Confronting Mass Incarceration” team.^[1] The team monitored the Fire and Police Commission (FPC) for a six-month period from June 2024 to December 2024 by attending biweekly FPC meetings and, when necessary, Public Safety Committee meetings. In collaboration with undergraduate students from the Milwaukee School of Engineering (MSOE) Honors Program, the Milwaukee Turners developed a free phone-based app that allows for observers to collect notes and data in real-time using a standardized format (see fig. 1). The following data points were collected during each meeting in the app:

Fig. 1

This data was then uploaded to an online dashboard developed by PowerBI (see fig. 2). The dashboard highlights key findings using data visualizations, including bar graphs documenting the time spent discussing personnel versus non-personnel agenda items. Using both the phone app and the online dashboard, we were able to collect, analyze, and share data in a clear and accessible way for community groups organizing around issues of racial equity and police accountability.

It is imperative to note that our data collection, and therefore our observations and recommendations, are based solely on regular sessions – that is, sessions that are open to the public. We are aware that there are limitations to this data. The FPC meets for executive sessions prior to most regular sessions and will sometimes motion to move to a closed session during a regular session. We acknowledge that an executive session could look far different from a regular one, and that some of our observations and concerns might very well be addressed in closed sessions. However, this is not information that is accessible to us as the public, nor are summaries of their discussions or observations conveyed.

Following our initial six-month monitoring period, our program will continue to provide a non-partisan lens of accountability to the FPC with the support of additional community partners.^[6] Additionally, we will directly share analysis with community organizations working toward police accountability, oversight, and racial equity, and incorporate new changes in policy or practice to our trainings on Law Enforcement Encounters and civic engagement to prevent unnecessary system involvement.

Fig. 2

2. Purpose

The City of Milwaukee has long been burdened by costly lawsuits due to racial profiling, abusive incarceration practices, and the death of individuals in police custody. The Milwaukee Police Department (MPD) has a longstanding history of implementing racially discriminatory practices from stop-and-frisk to arrests and sentencing. The MPD continues to disproportionately stop-and-frisk, arrest, and sentence Black residents more than any other race. As Dr. Theodore Lentz reports in his 2024 data landscape report of the Milwaukee County criminal legal system, “Racial disparities have trended upward over the last 14 years, and Black residents of Milwaukee County were roughly 4.7 times more likely to be arrested than White residents during 2023” (14). The FPC is the only civilian commission designed to exercise oversight of the MPD and its policies, and in 2024, provided supervision over the Department’s $304,124,605 adopted budget.^[7]

Through years of civic participation, the Milwaukee Turners noted that the general public is not aware of the authority assigned to the FPC, nor of the FPC’s role in providing oversight and accountability to the MPD. Few, if any, members of the public regularly attend their biweekly meetings and there are currently no civic watchdogs who regularly monitor the FPC.^[8] Other than a few controversial topics or occurrences involving the public, no news sources regularly report on the outcomes or discussions of the FPC.^[9] 

It is against this backdrop that the Milwaukee Turners began its FPC Monitoring Program in order to track policies and practices and share a synopsis of the information and data with the public, especially organizations that work towards police accountability, oversight, and racial equity.^[10] By showing what issues are in front of the FPC and how the Commissioners respond to them, the public and community groups can act in a more informed way.

BACKGROUND

1. The Fire and Police Commission (FPC) of the City of Milwaukee

Established in 1885 by the State of Wisconsin, the Fire and Police Commission (FPC) of the City of Milwaukee is considered to be one of the oldest and most influential civilian organizations overseeing police and fire departments in the United States. Unlike in many other cities where the Mayor appoints Fire and Police Chiefs and where their appointments can be used as tools of political patronage, the Milwaukee Commission is responsible for appointing both Chiefs, and – if deemed necessary – terminating their employment.^[11] In this way, the Commission aims to maintain a separation between politics and public safety matters while promoting accountability, diversity, and public trust.

The FPC is made up of nine-part time Commissioners and a full-time Executive Director who are each appointed by the Mayor and are subject to approval by the Common Council.^[12] Each Commissioner serves a five-year term, with one appointment made annually, and receives an annual salary of $6,600. As a civilian body, the FPC’s purpose is to represent the larger community’s voice, thereby fostering a more responsive and effective city government.

In addition to appointing both Fire and Police Chiefs and the Emergency Communications Director, the FPC holds the following responsibilities:

• Setting standards for recruitment, testing, and employment for positions in the Fire and Police Departments and Department of Emergency Communications
• Hiring and promoting all positions within the Fire and Police Departments and the Department of Emergency Communications
• Hearing appeals for Fire and Police Department members disciplined by their Chief
• Disciplining employees for misconduct, which can include the termination of employment for all positions
• Investigating and monitoring citizen complaints
• Reviewing policy changes brought forth by the Fire and Police Departments and bringing policy recommendations to the Common Council^[13]

As we will outline later in this section, the FPC’s roles and responsibilities have greatly changed since the 2023 enactment of Act 12.

2. Collins et al. v. The City of Milwaukee et al. (2018)

In any discussion surrounding the FPC, it is crucial to consider the 2018 Collins Settlement Agreement. The Collins Settlement originated from a class action lawsuit filed in February 2017 against the City of Milwaukee, the FPC, and then Chief of Police Alfonso Morales. The lawsuit featured several plaintiffs represented by the ACLU, including current County Executive David Crowley, Charles Collins, Tracy Adams, and Gregory Chambers, and alleged that the MPD violated the Fourth Amendment (protecting individuals from unreasonable searches and seizures) and the Fourteenth Amendment (providing equal protection and protecting individuals from racial discrimination). Seeking an end to racist stop-and-frisks, the safeguarding of constitutional rights, and the elimination of discriminatory police tactics, the lawsuit demonstrated that the police engaged in racially biased and unconstitutional traffic stops, stop-and-frisks, and other unlawful practices disproportionately affecting Black and Latino communities in significant numbers.

Rather than go to trial, the parties reached a Settlement Agreement in July 2018. As part of the Settlement Agreement the MPD and the FPC are required to:

• Amend policies related to stop-and-frisks
• Provide thorough documentation for every stop-and-frisk
• Improve training, supervision, and auditing for officers on issues related to stop-and-frisk practices and racial profiling, and enforce disciplinary actions against officers who conduct improper stops or fail to document them
• Regularly publish stop-and-frisk data for public access
• Improve the procedure for citizen complaints against police officers
• Maintain a community-based committee to ensure diverse civilian representation and input

Through these specific requirements, the Settlement Agreement seeks to significantly reduce unlawful stop-and-frisks and eliminate the racial disparities seen in the stop-and-frisk data. The Agreement requires the City of Milwaukee, the FPC, and the MPD to comply with its terms for a minimum of five years. The Crime and Justice Institute (CJI) was appointed to monitor compliance and conduct annual reports. At the time of this report’s publication, the CJI has released 26 reports and analyses over the course of 6 years. The most recent annual report, published on December 31, 2024, reveals that the MPD and the FPC have failed to “create systems of accountability that demonstrate effective and appropriate supervisory guidance for officers that need corrective action and discipline for officers that demonstrate patterns of non-compliance with policy” (3). Even after six years of monitoring, the CJI continues to underscore their concerns with adherence to Fourth and Fourteenth Constitutional Amendment standards, indicating continued racial disparities in stop-and-frisk encounters.^[14] 

3. Wisconsin Act 12 (2023)

Finally, before delving into our observations and recommendations, it is important to outline the drastic changes that have been made to the FPC following the passing of Wisconsin Act 12 in July 2023. Not only did Act 12 call for the increase of Fire and Police personnel – with a loss of 15% of the city’s shared revenue if it does not maintain staffing levels from the previous year –, this piece of legislation also eliminated the FPC’s policymaking authority, thereby undermining a 138-year-long initiative to provide citizens with oversight of the MPD and MFD policies.^[15] Now, policymaking is in the hands of the Fire and Police Chiefs. Rather than make policy, the FPC is now limited to recommending policy changes to the Common Council, who now has the authority to overrule the Chief with a two-thirds vote.^[16] 

The implementation of Act 12 drew staunch critique from Milwaukeans and resulted in the resignations of FPC Chair Edward Fallone and Vice-Chair Amanda Avalos to call attention to what they referred to in their joint resignation letter as “an assault on self-government.”^[17] By codifying certain FPC functions into state law, Act 12 placed the Commission under greater state legislative oversight; thereby reducing local autonomy. Nevertheless, the FPC still retains authority over all employment matters – including the termination for cause of Fire and Police Chiefs. We frame our observations and recommendations with the knowledge that, even after Act 12, the FPC still exercises “soft power” to use the words of former FPC Chair Fallone (“Chair and vice chair resign”).

OBSERVATIONS

Throughout the course of our six-month monitoring period, the Milwaukee Turners were able to observe a great deal about the efficacy of the FPC and its oversight of the MPD. For the purposes of this white paper, we would like to highlight four observations in particular, heavily drawn from our data collection and analysis.

1. During regular sessions observed during our monitoring period, the FPC devoted 81% of their time to personnel matters.

After monitoring 11 FPC meetings between the months of June and December 2024, we observed that one of the most striking aspects of these biweekly meetings is that the FPC spends considerable time on and attention to personnel matters. A significant portion of the regular sessions – as evidenced by meeting agendas and minutes – is dedicated to personnel matters, including new hires and promotions.^[18] These personnel matters are oftentimes addressed in closed session prior to the regularly scheduled regular session, which can result in delays to regular session start times.^[19] 

While we value the FPC’s unique position as one of the only civilian oversight boards in the country that is responsible for the employment, promotion, and dismissal of those working for the MPD and MFD, we do not believe that these personnel matters require the extensive amount of time that they are allotted in the regular session agendas. We found that 81% of the agenda items featured in the 11 meetings we observed were related to personnel matters (see fig. 3).

Fig. 3

While this focus on personnel matters is in some part due to the changes brought forth by Act 12, these practices have been long standing in the FPC. For instance, in the League of Women Voters of Milwaukee County’s 2021 report, their first observation is that FPC spends a great deal of time on personnel matters and the authors call for more engagement in the research and development of policies. This observation was made two years before the passing of Act 12 and highlights the embedded customs and practices of the FPC that reduce it to a human resources board.

During our monitoring period, a total of 28 new or amended SOPs were brought forth by the MPD. Following a brief communication from a representative of the MPD – typically Assistant Chief Craig Sarnow or Chief of Staff Heather Hough – there is time and space provided for Commissioners to ask questions or make comments regarding the proposed policy changes. We recorded that there were only six instances during regular sessions where Commissioners asked the MPD for clarifying information or further details. To members of the public, the Commissioners’ lack of dialogue with the MPD during SOP communications appears to suggest a diminishing role in the FPC’s efforts to affect policy. Although we acknowledge that the FPC is in a period of transition following the passing of Act 12, it is crucial to underscore that the FPC can still affect policy by bringing forth recommendations to the Common Council. The FPC did not do this at any point during our monitoring period.

2. During regular sessions, there is an overall lack of active engagement and participation from Commissioners.

In a similar vein, we noticed that there is an overall lack of active engagement and participation from Commissioners during regular sessions. There were multiple instances where we suspected that Commissioners had not read reports, memos, or new or amended SOPs prior to attending meetings. For this reason, about halfway through our monitoring period we started tracking speaking times of individual Commissioners. When tracking speaking times, we recorded whenever a Commissioner spoke – that is, for comments and questions during any point of the meeting, to make a motion, and to vote. Excluding the Chair of the FPC, who is tasked with facilitating each meeting, the average Commissioner speaking time was one minute and 28 seconds, with the majority of that time being used to vote and make motions.^[20] Our dashboard documents what we refer to as the 3% rule analysis, where we calculated how often a Commissioner spoke for less than 3% of the meeting duration (see fig. 4). Across all meetings and Commissioners, we documented that passive participation (that is, speaking only to vote and make motions) occurred 58% of the time.

Fig. 4

3. The FPC appears to serve as a rubber stamp.

During our monitoring period, 122 agenda items were put up to vote. Out of these 122 agenda items, 120 items received unanimous approval. There were only two particular agenda items that ever received no-votes: FPC 211802 and FPC 211863. Each of these items respectively received two no-votes, resulting in a total of 4 no-votes made during the entirety of our monitoring period. Given the current practices of the FPC, including closed sessions and lack of Commissioner participation during regular sessions, the public is left unaware of why these aye or no votes were made. We observed an overall lack of transparency when it comes to Commissioners’ voting records. Even if Commissioners are actively participating in deliberation and debate during closed sessions, the public has no way of knowing this.

4. The FPC has failed to secure public trust.

During our monitoring period, we subjectively observed Commissioners’ apparent indifference to residents during public comment, which is seen as highly troubling when juxtaposed to the deference that is given to the MPD and other city officials during their reports and testimonies. At the start of our monitoring period, public comment was limited to two minutes. This practice received criticism from members of the public – and at least publicly by one Commissioner – who noted the limitations of a two minute testimony.^[21] Following this criticism, the FPC now gives each member of the public five minutes to speak. However, we have witnessed some discrepancies with timing since this change. There does not seem to be a written and codified procedure for the public to follow. We are especially concerned that this lack of written policy may cause the FPC to arbitrarily limit testimony times during regular sessions discussing high-profile incidents. Commissioners’ attitude towards members of the public, along with our additional observations on the behaviors and customs of the FPC and its Commissioners, has led us to observe that the FPC does not proactively work towards fostering a positive and trusting relationship with the community it serves.

Some of this may also stem from the opaque nature of policies surrounding the MPD itself. We have found that it is difficult for members of the public to find copies of SOPs, redacted or otherwise. Additionally, the public is left to personally interpret the language of the SOPs – which in some instances like SOP 085 – may appear overly broad and subject to misinterpretation by laymen and law enforcement alike. Certainly, this is the case with SOP 085, which the public felt was overly broad and its interpretation allowed law enforcement to conduct stop-and-frisks in a way that sparked the Collins v. the City of Milwaukee lawsuit.^[22] 

If the FPC were able to serve as a bridge for increasing access and examination of these SOPs, as well as standardizing fair public testimony times, and explaining the process for closed session examination of policies and procedures, this would serve as a useful method of increasing public trust in their process.

RECOMMENDATIONS

After our six-month monitoring period, the Milwaukee Turners have several recommendations for the FPC. Some of our recommendations require considerable efforts, including amending state law. However, the majority of our recommendations do not require notable changes to state law or FPC rules and instead call for small – yet visible – changes in the FPC culture and its practices.

1. Amend Wisconsin Act 12 in reference to FPC responsibilities and authority.

Our first recommendation lies in the hands of state legislation; however, we implore the FPC, the City of Milwaukee and its officials, and the public to advocate for the amendment of Wisconsin Act 12. We call for the restoration of the FPC’s policy making authority so that it can fully exercise civilian oversight of the MPD and MFD.

2. Bring policy change recommendations to the Common Council

While Act 12 remains in effect, it is imperative for the FPC to continue to contribute to policy making efforts by bringing policy change recommendations to the Common Council. We recommend that the FPC dedicate less of their regular sessions to closed door personnel matters, and instead publicly engage in discussions about new and amended SOPs that are brought forth by the MPD. The FPC should intentionally communicate with the Chief of Police and the Common Council about their questions, comments, and concerns surrounding SOPs and do so in a transparent manner so that the public is knowledgeable of these conversations taking place. In order for this to occur, the Common Council might actively invite policy recommendations from the FPC, especially as it relates to the concerns of their constituents.^[23] 

3. Prepare and actively participate in all meetings

We implore Commissioners to actively participate during all closed and regular sessions. Commissioners should prepare for regularly scheduled meetings ahead of time by doing pre-reading and by attending these sessions with a willingness to engage with everyone present. We would like to see Commissioners asking questions and making comments about agenda items during open sessions for the sake of transparency and to increase public trust. That is, if Commissioners express concern or raise questions about any given agenda item in a closed session, they should also summarize what they examined during regular sessions so that the public knows that they are doing due diligence.

4. Engage the public

We encourage the FPC to continue intentionally engaging with the public. We recommend that the FPC promptly begins regular sessions at their scheduled time. Rather than schedule all closed sessions for one hour, the FPC should be able to discern when a closed session will require more time and therefore schedule the closed session for an earlier time. Not only will this practice prevent delays in regular sessions, but it will also enable a larger number of the public to attend these regular sessions. With that being said, it is important to note that one of the data points we monitored during our program was the number of public present for each regular session. The reality is that very few members of the community attend FPC meetings unless there is a dramatic, and unfortunately, tragic occurrence. There are many reasons for why a larger number of the public may not be attending these meetings, which is beyond the scope of this white paper. However, we believe that our observations of the FPC as described above are certainly contributing factors.^[24] With that being said, we encourage Milwaukeans to attend regular sessions of the FPC, either in-person or virtually.^[25] 

CONCLUSION

The Milwaukee Turners’ six-month monitoring program of the FPC has unearthed several critical areas that require improvement in order to enhance the efficacy and transparency of Milwaukee’s only civilian oversight board for its Fire and Police Departments. While we at the Milwaukee Turners recognize the limitations of Act 12 and call for its amendment, we firmly believe that the FPC has potential to drive meaningful change in police accountability and racial equity. However, this potential is stymied by FPC practices and policies that pre-date Act 12, such as its disproportionate allocation of meeting time to personnel matters, a lack of transparent and active engagement by Commissioners, its rubber stamping of policy recommendations, and its failures to rebuild public trust.

Our findings highlight the importance of fostering a culture of police and fire accountability within the FPC. By advocating for legislative changes to restore policy making authority, increasing public engagement, and ensuring rigorous Commissioner participation, the FPC can rebuild public confidence and strengthen its capacity to address systemic inequalities in policing. By addressing these issues and implementing the recommendations outlined in this white paper, the FPC can more effectively fulfill its role as a civilian oversight board and better align with its proposed mission to represent the diverse voices of Milwaukee.

As the FPC Monitoring Program continues, the Milwaukee Turners remain committed to collaborating with community organizations, policymakers, and residents to ensure that the FPC evolves into a more transparent and impactful institution. Milwaukeeans deserve a fire and police oversight body that prioritizes the community’s needs and upholds justice and equity, and the Milwaukee Turners are committed to supporting efforts that move our city closer to these goals.

REFERENCES 

A Clarion Call for Change: Report and Recommendations on the Milwaukee Fire and Police Commission. League of Women Voters of Milwaukee County, Sept. 2021.

ACLU Wisconsin. “After Five Years, City of Milwaukee and Milwaukee Police Department Remain Out of Compliance with Collins Settlement, New Report Shows.” ACLU Wisconsin, 25 Sept. 2023, https://www.aclu-wi.org/en/press-releases/after-five-years-city-milwaukee-and-milwaukee-police-department-remain-out-compliance. Accessed 24 Jan. 2025.

Bayatpour, A.J. “Fire and Police Commission chair and vice chair resign, citing loss of power over MPD policy.” CBS 58, 20 July 2023, https://www.cbs58.com/news/news-1689866253. Accessed 24 Jan. 2025.

Blake, Devin. “Residents express concerns that changes to Fire and Police Commission will lead to weaker oversight of Milwaukee police.” Milwaukee Neighborhood News Service, 12 Sept. 2023, https://milwaukeenns.org/2023/09/12/residents-express-concerns-that-changes-to-fire-and-police-commission-will-lead-to-weaker-oversight-of-milwaukee-police/. Accessed 24 Jan. 2025.

“City of Milwaukee Budget Documents.” City of Milwaukee, 2025, https://city.milwaukee.gov/doa/budget/Milwaukee-Budgets. Accessed 24 Jan. 2025.

“City of Milwaukee Settlement Agreement.” Crime and Justice Institute, 31 Dec. 2024, https://www.cjinstitute.org/city-of-milwaukee-settlement-agreement/. Accessed 24 Jan. 2025.

Fire and Police Commission. City of Milwaukee, 2025, https://city.milwaukee.gov/fpc. Accessed 24 Jan. 2025.

Hughes, Elliot. “Milwaukee police have made slow progress to reform stop-and-frisk practices. Here’s why.” Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, 21 Nov. 2022, https://www.jsonline.com/story/news/2022/11/21/milwaukee-police-still-have-racial-disparities-in-stops-frisks-searches-black-latino-residents/69620810007/. Accessed 24 Jan. 2025.

Jannene, Jeramey. “After State Law Stripped Authority, Leaders of Milwaukee’s Fire & Police Commission Resign.” Urban Milwaukee, 20 July 2023, https://urbanmilwaukee.com/2023/07/20/after-state-law-stripped-authority-leaders-of-milwaukees-fire-police-commission-resign/. Accessed 24 Jan. 2025.

Legislative Research Center. City of Milwaukee, 2025, https://milwaukee.legistar.com/Calendar.aspx. Accessed 24 Jan. 2025.

Lentz, Theodore S., et al. “Milwaukee County Criminal Legal System Data Landscape 1.0 Report.” U of Wisconsin Milwaukee, Feb. 2024.

Mackar, Mariam. “Fire and Police Commission members speak out on shift in policy power: ‘We still have a big role to play.’” TMJ4, 23 Jan. 2024, https://www.tmj4.com/news/local-news/fire-and-police-commission-members-speak-out-for-the-first-time-on-shift-in-policy-power-we-still-have-a-big-role-to-play. Accessed 24 Jan. 2025.

Milwaukee City Charter. Common Council, 1 Jan. 2025, https://city.milwaukee.gov/ImageLibrary/Groups/ccClerk/Ordinances/City-Charter/Master-Charter.pdf. Accessed 24 Jan. 2025.

Rules of the Board of Fire and Police Commissioners: City of Milwaukee. Fire and Police Commission, Revised 5 Dec. 2024, https://city.milwaukee.gov/ImageLibrary/Groups/cityFPC/Rules/FPCRules.pdf. Accessed 24 Jan. 2025.

Wis. Stat. § 62.13 (2025). Wisconsin State Legislature, 1 Jan. 2025, https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/statutes/statutes/62/i/13. Accessed 24 Jan. 2025.

Wis. Stat. § 62.50 (2025). Wisconsin State Legislature, 1 Jan. 2025, https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/statutes/statutes/62/ii/50. Accessed 24 Jan. 2025.